This strategic move can help both India and Russia resist Western pressure. Will New Delhi act?
The United States and its allies implemented economic sanctions against Russian oil following the escalation of the Ukraine crisis in February 2022 – later that year, they introduced a $60 cap on crude and an embargo on Russian seaborne oil, in an attempt to hurt the country’s economy – while at the same time keeping Russian crude flowing to global markets so as not to trigger price hikes.
The sanctions also prohibited Western companies from providing services such as insurance, financing, and flagging to Russian tankers that sell crude oil above the agreed price cap.
Despite all this, Russia successfully redirected its oil exports to alternative markets, notably China and India. China primarily receives Russian oil through pipelines, while India, which bought ten times more oil in 2023 than in the previous year, has significantly increased its seaborne imports –with over 60% of Russia’s maritime oil exports directed there. Therefore, India was most affected by sanctions on tankers.
Media reported on Monday that the outgoing Biden administration is planning to impose more sanctions on Russia – taking aim at its oil revenues with action against tankers carrying Russian crude.
Talks about sanctions against Russia’s so-called ‘shadow fleet’ intensified last month, with US Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen stating that Washington was working out sanctions on the tankers and “would not rule out” imposing sanctions on Chinese banks, as it seeks ways to reduce Russia’s oil revenue. In December 2024, the EU passed a 15th sanctions package targeting several dozen vessels of what Western officials and media label “Russia’s shadow fleet.”
New Delhi has been watching these developments closely. Since the escalation of the Ukraine crisis in 2022, India has emerged as Russia’s second largest buyer of oil. This summer, it overtook China as the number one buyer.
Oil Tankers Market
Oil tankers vary in size, from a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) capable of carrying up to 550,000 DWT and a cargo capacity of over three million barrels (over 500 million liters). Each year, these tankers transport approximately two billion metric tons of oil, making them second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency. The average transportation cost for crude oil by tanker ranges from $5 to $8 per cubic meter ($0.02 to $0.03 per US gallon).
In addition to standard tankers, specialized vessels like naval replenishment oilers have emerged, allowing for the refueling of moving ships. The timeline for building a new tanker typically spans about two years from order to delivery, with the actual construction phase lasting nine to 15 months. In recent years, the industry has seen the delivery of between 150 and 250 new ocean-going tankers annually, almost exclusively built in China, South Korea, and Japan.
The global oil tanker fleet is predominantly controlled by Western companies, with major international insurers also headquartered in Western capitals. Among the largest oil tanker companies, Tokyo-based Mitsui OSK Lines stands out, operating a fleet of over 930 vessels with a total deadweight tonnage of 66 million tons.
Large tanker companies provide chartering services for oil companies and government agencies. Notable owners of substantial oil tanker fleets include Canadian Teekay Corporation, Denmark’s A.P. Moller-Maersk and DS Torm, Frontline PLC of Cyprus, Japan’s MOL Tankship Management, Florida-based Overseas Shipholding Group, and Euronav of Belgium.
International law mandates that every merchant ship be registered under one country’s colors, referred to as its flag state. This flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel, conducting regular inspections, certifying the ship’s equipment and crew, and issuing safety and pollution-prevention documents. The two largest flag registries for tankers–Liberia and the Marshall Islands–are managed by firms based in the US.
Panama remains the world’s largest flag state for oil tankers, with 528 registered vessels. Additionally, six other flag states have more than 200 registered oil tankers: Liberia (464), Singapore (355), China (252), Russia (250), the Marshall Islands (234), and the Bahamas (209). In contrast, the United States has only 59 registered oil tankers.
The ‘Shadow Fleet’
The term ‘shadow fleet’ encompasses both the ‘gray’ fleet, which typically conceals its ownership, and the ‘dark’ fleet, which obscures the origin of its oil products. This concept has been in existence for some time, initially emerging when Iran and Venezuela transported oil under sanctions. Shadow fleets often consist of older tankers that lack proper insurance.
Consequently, in the event of an accident, there is often no party accountable for addressing environmental incidents such as oil spills. These vessels are frequently barred from entering certain ports, prompting them to conduct oil transfers at sea. Estimates indicate that up to 18% of the world’s tankers are part of the shadow fleet. With approximately 7,800 tankers globally, around 1,500 belong to this category.
Media reports suggest that Moscow has been leveraging shadow fleets to sell a significant portion of its oil above the $60-per-barrel price cap. At one point, these tankers were responsible for transporting up to 70% of Russia’s seaborne oil. The volume of such transfers nearly doubled in the first year following the escalation of the conflict in Ukraine. Bloomberg estimated that since early 2022, Russia has invested at least $10 billion into its shadow fleet, a strategy that has substantially undermined the effectiveness of the sanctions regime.
Currently more than 630 tankers, some more than 20 years old, are involved in shipping Russian oil, as well as Iranian crude that has been subjected to sanctions, according to London-based Lloyd’s List Intelligence, a maritime information service.
Russia’s vessels are mostly under twenty years old. But the Russian fleet is on average three to four years older than the fleets that serve the major Arab countries. Since 2022, Moscow has pivoted its oil exports away from Europe, where many major oil-trading hubs do not allow any ships older than twenty years, to Asian markets with less stringent requirements.
Sanctions’ limitations
Since 2022, Russia has been actively expanding its tanker fleet. By March 2023, CNN reported that it had about 600 tankers of various capacities. Current estimates suggest that Russia may directly or indirectly control between 1,400 to 1,800 tankers, positioning it as the largest operator of a shadow fleet. Although Moscow’s leading tanker group, Sovcomflot, reported lower financial performance due to sanctions, many of its tankers continued to deliver oil priced above the price cap to Indian refiners.
The extensive Russian shadow fleet operates with relative impunity; even previously blacklisted tankers are now functioning more freely. Concerns regarding potential Western financial repercussions for customers accepting these vessels in their ports appear to have waned, as noted in a Bloomberg report. Operators are increasingly transparent about their activities and locations at sea, moving away from previous efforts to conceal their operations.
Some oil continues to be transported by vessels owned by shipowners or insured by insurers subject to price cap coalition regulations. Shipping documents, sometimes stamped by Russian customs, may falsely attest that the sale price does not exceed the price cap. Blacklisted ships avoid Western ports and refrain from utilizing Western services such as insurance or financing, and are owned by companies that are similarly insulated from potential penalties.
The vessels transported an average of 48 million barrels of oil per day, with the remainder likely moving via pipelines to refineries. Very few ships engaged in international crude oil transportation dedicate their entire capacity to Russia, Iran, or Venezuela. As of 2024, a quarter of the global tanker fleet is involved in transporting Russian cargo, indicating that the so-called shadow fleet is neither as distinct nor as obscure as previously perceived. This illustrates an impotence among Western governments in hampering Russian oil transfers.
A lesson for India?
The dynamics of the global supply chain have underscored the necessity for both Russia and India to develop larger tanker fleets.
As of 2023, India’s oil tanker fleet comprised 197 vessels, an increase from 168 in 2018, with a combined deadweight tonnage (DWT) of approximately 12.7 million tons. The state-owned Shipping Corporation of India stands as the largest tanker owner in the country, boasting a well-diversified fleet that includes crude oil tankers of various sizes.
However, many Indian ports face challenges such as constrained terminal infrastructure, draft limitations, and insufficient tankage capacity, which necessitate careful scheduling for tanker arrivals.
To enhance efficiency, lighterage operations (unloading some oil off a vessel before it enters a port) are often employed to ensure a swift turnaround for tankers unable to dock due to these restrictions. Clearly, there is an urgent need for expansion within the Indian tanker fleet to address these operational challenges.
The statements, views and opinions expressed in this column are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of RT.
